All CSPII reports are written from the Kafir-centric point of view. Political Islam has attacked Kafir civilizations for the last 1400 years, and during this time, it has slowly changed many of them into Islamic ones through domination of the Kafirs.
This report catalogs the references to Female Genital Mutilation in the Trilogy, evaluates their doctrinal significance, and addresses the directimpact of FGM on the Kafir.
This report does not address the indirect impact of FGM on the Kafir, but the reader should be aware that:
- FGM is illegal in all western jurisdictions. Those who practice it in a Kafir country are breaking the law and treating Islamic law as superior to Kafir law;
- FGM is a practice that is alien and offensive to Kafir values and traditions. Its presence in Kafir societies acts as a sign of Political Islam’s presence, power and domination, demoralizing the Kafir;
- FGM is associated with endogamy (marrying only other members of one’s ethnic group, class, or social group). In Kafir countries this prevents the integration of practicing communities;
- Institutions and professions (judiciary, police, social workers, healthcare professionals, academia etc) come to tolerate, accommodate, then be complicit with FGM. This undermines the existing culture and laws, causing public mistrust of institutions;
- As Political Islam comes to dominate a community or society, Kafirs who do not engage in FGM can come under pressure to adopt it, suffering persecution if they do not.
TERMINOLOGY
The choice of terminology in this report is guided by CSPII’s Kafir-centric perspective on Islam, by CSPII’s belief in human rights, and by the principle of Objective Naming.
The most commonly used terms for the ritual cutting of the female genitals are ‘Female Circumcision’, ‘Female Genital Mutilation’ and ‘Female Genital Cutting’. Each term implies an attitude towards the practice corresponding to one of the three points of view relative to Islam: the Believer’s, the Kafir’s and the Apologist’s.
If you believe Mohammed is the prophet of Allah, then you are a Believer. ‘Female Circumcision’ expresses the believer’s faith that ritual female genital cutting is part of being a Muslim. The term implies an equivalence with male circumcision, which is legal in all jurisdictions and is generally viewed as harmless and ethically acceptable. Used as a generic term for ritual cutting of the female genitals, it gives the impression that the procedure consists of nothing more severe than male circumcision. This is only true for the rare procedure of ‘hoodectomy’ (see Typology of FGM below). The great majority of ritual cutting of the female genitals involves procedures significantly more severe than male circumcision.
If you do not believe that Mohammed was a prophet, you are a Kafir. ‘Female Genital Mutilation’ expresses the Kafir’s view that the ritual cutting of the female genitals is a cruel, harmful and unnecessary practice, violating the dignity and rights of women and children.
The third viewpoint is that of the apologist for Islam. Apologists do not believe that Mohammed was a prophet, but they never say anything critical about Islam. ‘Female Genital Cutting’ is a neutral, descriptive term, expressing the Apologist’s refusal to judge or criticize Islamic beliefs, deeds and practices.
The ritual cutting of the female genitals violates several human rights outlined under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Williams-Breault 2018).
CSPII defends human rights and views Islam from the Kafir perspective. Consequently this report uses ‘Female Genital Mutilation’ (and its abbreviation ‘FGM’) when referring to the practice in a general sense, including when it is practiced by non-Muslims, when it is motivated by Islamic doctrine, by sadism, when it results from medical malpractice or folk beliefs.
Concerning specifically Islamic FGM this report’s choice of terminology is guided by Objective Naming, the principle whereby Islamic practices and beliefs are referred to by the term used for them in the doctrine. For example, we refer to ‘violent jihad’ not ‘terrorism’, ’hijra’ not ‘migration’, and ‘zakat’ not ‘charity’. This allows for precise and objective thinking, and eliminates the confusions that arise when a term does not correspond to the thing it refers to. In Islamic doctrine, FGM is referred to as ‘Khitan’ or ‘Khaffad’. ‘Khitan’ is also used for the ritual cutting of the male genitals. ‘Khaffad’ is used for the ritual cutting of the female genitals only However ‘Khaffad’ is found only in weak hadiths and secondary texts (such as Reliance of the Traveller). ‘Khitan’ is used for FGM in Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, and other important hadith collections. As this report includes only hadiths that use ‘khitan’, this report uses ‘Khitan’ rather than ‘khaffad’ to refer to Islamic FGM, specifying ‘of the girl’ or ‘of the boy’ where necessary.
TYPOLOGY OF FGM
Female genital mutilation comprises all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injuries to the female genital organs for ritual or non-medical reasons. The World Health Organization classifies female genital mutilation into four types (World Health Organization 2024):
Type 1: Commonly known as clitoridectomy, this is the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans (the external and visible part of the clitoris, which is a sensitive part of the female genitals), and/or the prepuce/clitoral hood (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoral glans—sometimes referred to as hoodectomy.
Type 2: Also known as excision, this is the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora (the inner folds of the vulva), with or without removal of the labia majora (the outer folds of skin of the vulva).
Type 3: Also known as infibulation, this is the narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and repositioning the labia minora, or labia majora, sometimes through stitching, with or without removal of the clitoral prepuce/clitoral hood and glans.
Type 4: This includes all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, e.g., pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterizing the genital area.
The only indications given by Islamic doctrine as to the nature of khitan are that it involves cutting of the clitoris, and that Mohammed considered some form (or forms) excessively severe. Consequently, there is much variety in the nature and severity of khitan. Clitoridectomy is the most common, followed by excision, then infibulation. Some communities in South Asia engage in minimal or symbolic procedures, such as pricking and scraping.
Source of the picture
FGM IN ISLAMIC DOCTRINE
Although FGM is not explicitly mentioned in the Koran, verse 30:30 implicitly advocates it by requiring Muslims to 'adhere to the fitrah' (1). The fitrah is a set of 'hygiene' practices, one of which is FGM.
Every reference to FGM in the hadith supports the practice, except one, which neither supports nor condemns it (2). Bukhari and Muslim Hadith collections (both considered fully authentic) contain three traditions that refer to FGM. One reports the words of Mohammed, another is a tacit approval (3), and the third reports an episode during the battle of Uhud where a companion of Mohammed taunts a Meccan warrior by calling him the 'son of a mother who cuts clitorises'.
Sharia law recommends or mandates FGM (4).
Islamic doctrine allows Muslim men to marry Kafir women, provided they are ‘People of the Book’ i.e. Christian or Jewish (5). If a Kafir woman marries a Muslim who follows a school of Islam that actively favours FGM, she may have to undergo khitan (Dawson and Wijewardene 2021, 7). Likewise, the daughters of such marriages may also have to undergo khitan (either secretly in the Kafir country or in their father’s country of origin). This is because Islamic doctrine ordains that a wife must obey her husband in everything (6), and that the children of mixed (Muslim-Kafir) marriages must be raised as Muslims (7).
Islamic doctrine requires that Muslims living under Kafir jurisdictions practice Sharia law whenever possible (8) and permits, in some cases even requires, the use of deception to conceal from the Kafir aspects of Islamic doctrine (such as FGM) that might lead them to oppose it (9). This means that Kafirs may not be aware that FGM is being performed on girls in their country.
Doctrinal references from Primary Islamic Texts
Koran—the exact words of Allah as the Angel Gabriel dictated them to Mohammed (unless otherwise indicated, all Koran quotations are from Arberry’s translation). Sunna—Mohammed’s words and deeds are called the Sunna. They are found in two different texts—the Sira and the Hadith. The Sira is Mohammed’s biography and the Hadith are Traditions (examples) from his life. Sharia Law—Islamic Law; codification of the knowledge of the Koran and Sunna. The process of the Islamization of countries through the implementation of Sharia law is gradual. For example, even in some Islamic countries, wearing the veil is not mandatory because full Sharia Law has not yet been implemented.
(1) Koran, verse 30:30 implicitly advocates FGM by requiring Muslims to 'adhere to the fitrah'.
Koran 30:30 So direct your face toward the religion, inclining to truth. [Adhere to] the fitrah of Allah upon which He has created [all] people. No change should there be in the creation of Allah. That is the correct religion, but most of the people do not know.
(Saheeh International 2011, 562)
'Fitrah' refers to an innate predisposition towards Islamic behaviour and beliefs.
Hadith [Bukhari 4709] Narrated Abu Hurairah: Allah's Messenger was presented with two cups, one containing wine and the other containing milk on the night of his Journey by Night at Jerusalem. He looked at both and took the milk. Jibril (Gabriel) said, "Thanks to Allah Who guided you to the Fitrah (i.e. Islam); if you had taken the wine, your followers would have gone astray." (Al-Bukhari 1997, 6:186)
Hadith [Muslim 6758] It was narrated that Abu Hurairah said: “The Messenger of Allah said: ‘There is no child who is not born in a state of Fitrah, then his parents make him a Jew or a Christian or a idolater.’ A man said: ‘O Messenger of Allah, what do you think if he dies before that?’ He said: ‘Allah knows best what they would have done.” (Muslim 2007, 7:33)
The following hadith explains how to 'adhere to the fitrah'.
Hadith [Bukhari 5889] Narrated Abu Hurairah: Allah's Messenger said, "Five practices are characteristics of Al-Fitrah : circumcision, shaving the pubic hair, depilating the hair of armpits, clipping the nails and cutting the moustaches short." (Al-Bukhari 1997, 6:420)
In this hadith, the Arabic word used for ‘circumcision’ is ‘khitan.’ Though some argue that khitan refers only to (male) circumcision, dictionaries of Classical Arabic define khitan as applying to both sexes.
“Circumcision of a boy, and of a girl” (Lane 1968, II:704)
“to circumcise (a boy or a girl)” [translated from French] (Kazimirski 1860, II:541)
“to circumcise the boy and the girl” [translated from Arabic] (Ibn Manẓūr 2024)
These definitions are confirmed by two hadiths which use the word khitan for the genital cutting of girls/women (note that these hadiths are not sahih and are cited not for their doctrinal value, but to clarify the usage of the word khitan).
Hadith [Abu Dawud 5271] a woman used to circumcise [Ar. khitan] females in Al-Madinah, and the Prophet said to her: "Do not go to extremes in cutting, for that is better for the woman and more liked by the husband." (Abu Dawud 2008, 5:486)
Hadith [Bukhari, Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 59:1247] Umm ‘Alqama said: “When ‘A’ isha’s brother’s daughters were circumcised [Ar. khitan], ‘A’isha was asked, ‘Shall we call someone to amuse them?’ She replied, ‘Yes.’ She sent for ‘Adi and he came to them. ‘A’isha passed by the room and saw him singing and shaking his head in rapture—and he had a large head of hair. She said, ‘Uff! A Satan! Get him out! Get him out!’ ”' (Al-Bukhari 2014, 814)
(2) Every reference to FGM in the hadith supports the practice except one, which neither supports nor condemns it
Hadith [Bukhari 4072] “[…] I went out with the people for the battle. When the army aligned for the fight, Siba' came out and said, 'Is there any (Muslim) to accept my challenge to a duel? Hamza bin 'Abdul-Muttalib came out and said, 'O Siba',O Ibn Umm Anmar, the one who circumcises other ladies! Do you challenge Allah and His Messenger?' […]” (Al-Bukhari 1997, 5:243)
Note that the phrase ‘one who circumcises other ladies' is a mistranslation: the original Arabic says 'son of a mother who cuts clitorises'.
(3) Tacit Approval
A tacit approval (Ar. taqrir) is where Mohammed indicates that an act or belief is allowed by not criticizing or forbidding it when it comes to his attention. Mohammed's tacit approvals include anything that his Companions said or did in his presence to which he did not object or towards which he showed his unspoken favour.
‘The term Hadith applies to the words and acts of Allah’s Messenger as well as his tacit approvals called Taqrir. The latter refers to acts done in his presence but he did not disapprove of them, his silence indicating his approval.’ (Abu Dawud 2008, 1:17)
Tacit approvals derive their authority from Koran 5:78–79, which requires that Muslims not remain silent on unlawful or wrong things.
Koran 5:78–79 Cursed were the unbelievers of the Children of Israel by the tongue of David, and Jesus, Mary's son; that, for their rebelling and their transgression. They forbade not one another any dishonour that they committed; surely evil were the things they did. (Arberry 1996, 140)
Eighty-nine Koranic verses claim that Mohammed was the perfect man and a perfect example for mankind, and demand that Muslims imitate Mohammed in every way.
Koran 33:21 You have had a good example in God's Messenger for whosoever hopes for God and the Last Day, and remembers God oft. (Arberry 1996, 123)
This infallibility means that Mohammed could never have compromised with any wrongdoing. Thus, any act or speech that came to his attention which he did not in some way comment upon or censure must be, at the very least, allowed.
Mohammed also indicated that silence could constitute consent:
Hadith [Muslim 3476] It was narrated from Ibn ‘Abbas that the Prophet said: “The previously-married woman has more right concerning herself than her guardian does, and the virgin should be asked for permission, and her permission is her silence.” (Muslim 2007, 4:44)
As a consequence, Mohammed’s silences and his inactions—his 'tacit approvals'—are as much divine revelation as his utterances and deeds.
In the following two hadiths, Mohammed tacitly approves of FGM by failing to criticise, condemn or forbid it when it comes to his attention. The first hadith is the better known, but the second gives a clearer tacit approval. Both these hadiths use the Arabic word khitan for “circumcision.”
Hadith [Muslim 785] It was narrated that Abû Mûsâ said: “A group of the Muhâdjireen and Ansâr differed concerning that. The Ansâr said: ‘Ghusl is not mandatory unless semen spurts forth or there is water (emission of fluid).’ The Muhâjirûn said: ‘When he has intercourse, Ghusl is mandatory.’ Abû Mûsâ said: ‘I will answer you concerning that’. I went and asked permission to enter upon ‘Aishah, and permission was granted to me. I said to her: ‘O my mother’ - or, ‘O Mother of the Believers’ - ‘I want to ask you about something but I feel shy.’ She said: ‘Do not feel too shy to ask me anything that you would ask your mother who gave birth to you, for I am your mother.’ I said: ‘What necessitates Ghusl?’? She said: ‘You have come to one who knows about that. The Messenger of Allah said: ‘When a man sits between the four parts and the two circumcised [Ar. FGM] parts meet, then Ghusl is obligatory.” (Muslim 2007, 1:461)
Hadith [Tirmidhi, Jami, 1:108] Aishah narrated: "When the circumcised meets the circumcised [Ar. khitan], then indeed Ghusl is required. Myself and Allah's Messenger did that, so we performed Ghusl." (Tirmidhī 2007, I:133)
This hadith is Sahih. 'Ghusl' is a ritual purifying bath.
(4) Sharia law either recommends or mandates FGM
MALIKI
Sharia Law [al-Risala 29.9b] female circumcision (khifad) is praiseworthy (makruma). (al-Qayrawānī 2018)
SHAFI’I
Sharia Law [The Reliance of the Traveller] “And obligatory (for both males and females) is circumcision (which is the cutting of the skin that is over the penis of the male, and as for female circumcision, it is the cutting of the clitoris [and it is called khaffad]).” [1] (Ibn al-Naqīb 1999, 59)
HANBALI
Sharia Law [Bidayat al-‘Abid] “Though early childhood is best, it is obligatory to circumcise both male and female at the age of puberty.” (Baʻlī 2017, 12)
(5) Islamic doctrine allows Muslim men to marry Kafir women, provided they are “of the Book” i.e. Christian or Jewish.
Koran 5:5 Today the good things are permitted you, and the food of those who were given the Book is permitted to you, and permitted to them is your food; Likewise believing women in wedlock, and in wedlock women of them who were given the Book before you if you give them their wages, in wedlock and not in license, or as taking lovers. Whoso disbelieves in the faith, his work has failed, and in the world to come he shall be among the losers. (Arberry 1996, 128)
(6) Islamic doctrine ordains that a wife must obey her husband in everything
Koran 4:34 Men are the managers of the affairs of women for that God has preferred in bounty one of them over another, and for that they have expended of their property. Righteous women are therefore obedient, guarding the secret for God's guarding. And those you fear may be rebellious admonish; banish them to their couches, and beat them. If they then obey you, look not for any way against them; God is All-high, All-great. (Arberry 1996, 105)
Sharia law [The Reliance of the Traveller m11.9] The husband is only obliged to support his wife when she gives herself to him or offers to, meaning she allows him full enjoyment of her person and does not refuse him sex at any time of the night or day. She is not entitled to support from her husband when: (1) she is rebellious (nashiz, def: m10.12(N:) (O: meaning when she does not obey him) even if for a moment. (Ibn al-Naqīb 1999, 545)
(7) Children of mixed (Muslim/Kafir) marriages must be raised as Muslims
Hadith [Bukhari 1385] Narrated Abu Hurairah: The Prophet said, "Every child is born on Al-Fitrah [with a true faith of Islamic Monotheism (i.e. to worship none but Allah Alone)] and his parents convert him to Judaism or Christianity or Magianism, an animal gives birth to a perfect baby animal. Do you find it mutilated?" (Al-Bukhari 1997, 2:267)
(8) Islamic doctrine requires that Muslims living under Kafir jurisdictions practice the Sharia law whenever possible
Koran 33:1 O Prophet, fear God, and obey not the unbelievers and the hypocrites. God is All-knowing, All-wise. (Arberry 1996, 121)
Koran 33:36 It is not for any believer, man or woman, when God and His Messenger have decreed a matter, to have the choice in the affair. Whosoever disobeys God and His Messenger has gone astray into manifest error. (Arberry 1996, 125)
Koran 6:121 And eat not of that over which God's Name has not been mentioned; it is ungodliness. The Satans inspire their friends to dispute with you; if you obey them, you are idolaters. (Arberry 1996, 163)
(9) Islamic doctrine permits, in some cases even reequires, the use of deception to conceal from the Kafir aspects of Islamic doctrine (such as FGM) that might lead them to oppose it
Koran 3:54 And they devised, and God devised, and God is the best of devisers. (Arberry 1996, 81)
Koran 86:15–17 They are devising guile, and I am devising guile. So respite the unbelievers; delay with them awhile. (Arberry 1996, 334)
Hadith [Bukhari 4:52:271] Narrated Jabir: The Prophet said, "Who will kill Ka'b bin Ashraf." Muhammad bin Maslama replied, "Do you like me to kill him?" The Prophet replied in the affirmative. Muhammad bin Maslama said, "Then allow me to say what I like," The Prophet replied, "I do (i.e., allow you)." (Al-Bukhari 1997, 4:166)
Sira [Ibn Ishaq 553] Ka'b was left prostrate there. After his fall Nadir was brought low. Sword in hand we cut him down by Muhammad’s order when he sent secretly by night Ka'b’s brother, to go to Ka'b. He beguiled him and brought him down with guile. (Ibn Isḥāq 2001, 442)
Sharia law states that it is permissible to lie in order to accomplish a praiseworthy or obligatory act
Sharia Law [The Reliance of the Traveller r8.2] If a praiseworthy aim is attainable through both telling the truth and lying, it is unlawful to accomplish through lying because there is no need for it. When it is possible to achieve such an aim by lying but not by telling the truth, it is permissible to lie if attaining the goal is permissible (N: i.e. when the purpose of lying is to circumvent someone who is preventing one from doing something permissible), and obligatory to lie if the goal is obligatory. (Ibn al-Naqīb 1999, 745)
Note that Sharia law deems FGM as either praiseworthy or obligatory:
Sharia Law [al-Risala 29.9b] female circumcision (khifad) is praiseworthy (makruma). (al-Qayrawānī 2018)
Sharia Law [The Reliance of the Traveller] “And obligatory (for both males and females) is circumcision [khitan] (which is the cutting of the skin that is over the penis of the male, and as for female circumcision, it is the cutting of the clitoris [and it is called khaffad]).” [2] (Ibn al-Naqīb 1999, 59)
CONCLUSION
Islam is the ‘Man and the Book’, the man being Mohammed and the book being the Koran.
The Koran is the word and will of Allah, the Islamic god. The Koran says in 89 verses that Mohammed is the perfect man and that his life is the pattern or divine human prototype for all humanity to follow. Mohammed’s example and teaching are found in the Sunna, which consists of the Hadiths and the Sira.
If an act, belief or condition is supported by the Koran or by Mohammed’s teaching and example it is Islamic.
This report demonstrates that the Sunna explicitly supports FGM and that the Koran implicitly supports it.
Therefore, FGM practiced under the influence of Islamic doctrine should be considered as Islamic.
LIST OF TERMS
Classical Arabic - the language of the Koran, Hadith & Sira
Endogamy - the practice of marrying only other members of one’s ethnic group, class, or social group
Fitra/Fitrah - an innate predisposition towards Islamic beliefs, behaviour and practices, particularly practices relating to personal hygiene
Ghusl - ritual purifying bath
Hadith - a record of the words, actions, and the tacit approvals of Mohammed as transmitted through chains of narrators
Kafir - ‘one who conceals’—a non-Muslim
Khaffad - the genital cutting of the female
Khifad - see khaffad
Khitan - the genital cutting of either male or female
People of the Book - Islamic term referring to followers of those religions which Muslims regard as having been guided by previous revelations – Jews and Christians in particular
Sahih - ‘sound’—used for a hadith that is judged entirely authentic
Sharia - Islamic law as based on the Trilogy
Tacit Approval - where Mohammed indicates that an act or belief is allowed by not criticising or forbidding it when it comes to his attention
Tradition - An incident from Mohammed’s life as related by one, several, or many hadiths
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Footnotes
[1 ] This is a translation of the original Arabic text of Ahmad Ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367), the author of Reliance of the Traveller. The English translation by Nuh Mim Keller (born 1954) states that it is not the clitoris, but the prepuce of the clitoris that should be cut. This is an addition by the translator and is not found in al-Misri’s original text.
[2 ] This is a translation of the original Arabic text of Ahmad Ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367), the author of Reliance of the Traveller. The English translation by Nuh Mim Keller (born 1954) states that it is not the clitoris, but the prepuce of the clitoris that should be cut. This is an addition by the translator and is not found in Ibn Naqib’s original text.